Conflict-related Sexual Violence Research Articles

The gendered costs of stigma: How experiences of conflict‐related sexual violence affect civic engagement for women and men

AbstractA common understanding emphasizes the destructive effects of conflict‐related sexual violence (CRSV) on social cohesion and community life. Stressing the agency of survivors, we present an alternative argument. Our theory predicts that survivors seek to counteract the stigma attached to CRSV by contributing to the community in the form of civic engagement. Drawing on three original surveys from Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Liberia, and Sri Lanka and relying on list experiments to reduce underreporting bias, we find that survivors of CRSV indeed show increased levels of civic engagement. This civic effect is consistent across the three contexts and very likely causal. We also rule out an alternative mechanism based on posttraumatic growth and dispel concerns that increased civic engagement comes at the expense of decreased intergroup relations. However, looking at sex differences, our results are more sobering. While in line with our prediction, they do not support the optimistic notion that survivors' mobilization results in female empowerment and the closing of existing gender gaps in civic behavior. Our findings have important implications for our understanding of CRSV, the legacy of violent conflict, and the gendered nature of politics.

Sexual Violence Against Men in Civil Conflict

Sexual violence against men in conflict settings is neither a rare nor recent phenomenon, yet its absence in academic scholarship and humanitarian initiatives remains glaring. Despite the advances in our understanding of the determinants of wartime sexual violence against women, surprisingly little empirical research exists on sexual violence against men in conflict. Acts of sexual violence are commonly enacted against men in war, yet because they do not fit more narrow definitions of rape, accounts of these experiences are often misclassified as “torture.” Moreover, in many countries experiencing pervasive conflict-related sexual violence, there exist restrictive laws regarding sodomy and homosexuality, reducing the chances that males will report their experiences. Using originally coded data on sexual and gender identity laws and reported incidents of sexual violence in civil conflict, I find that laws that outline the protection of sexual and gender identity expression including the decriminalization of same-sex activity are significantly associated with reports of acts of sexual violence against men. The results speak to the gap in the literature on male sexual violence with tangible consequences for the distribution of humanitarian aid, availability of medical and psychological services for victims, and aims of peacekeeping missions.

Post-Traumatic Growth, Resilience and Social-Ecological Synergies: Some Reflections from a Study on Conflict-Related Sexual Violence

The concept of post-traumatic growth (PTG) continues to generate significant interest, as reflected in the increasing number of studies. This article makes two novel contributions to existing scholarship on PTG. First, it seeks to demonstrate that the common framing of PTG as positive psychological change is too narrow. To do so, it looks to research on resilience and highlights the shift from person-centred understandings of resilience to more relational approaches that situate the concept in the interactions and dynamics between individuals and their social ecologies (environments). The article’s core argument is that there are social-ecological synergies between resilience and PTG, which, in turn, are highly relevant to how we think about and study growth. Second, the article empirically develops this argument by drawing on a larger study involving victims-/survivors of conflict-related sexual violence (CRSV) in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Colombia and Uganda. It is important to note in this regard that there are no major studies of PTG focused on CRSV, just as scholarship on CRSV has given little attention to PTG (or indeed resilience).

Individual agency and social support in healing from conflict-related sexual violence: A case history from eastern DRC

ABSTRACT Examining the experience of a male survivor of rape through the salutogenic model and ecological theory, this case study explores how he moved towards the direction of health after an atrocious experience of sexual violence perpetrated by members of an armed group. The study illustrates how he was able to deploy agency by undertaking a number of health-promoting actions to recover from the physical, mental, and social effects of conflict-related sexual violence. Initiatives in the process of improving one’s health include self-care practice, searching for specialised care when self-care seems inefficient, relocation to new a setting post-rape, starting a business, testing one’s reproductive capacities, marrying, taking care of the way he dressed, learning a new language, developing public speaking skills, owning a piece of land, having regular medical check-ups and ascending to power and decision-making bodies. His narrative shows how these initiatives are mirrored by both opportunities and setbacks. While more traditional survey-based studies focus on identifying which practices might be helpful in a healing context, this study sheds light on how an individual healing process might be complex and nuanced and is an important starting point towards our efforts to theorise resilience for male survivors.

Violenza sessuale nei conflitti: la pandemia ombra. Una rassegna di questioni controverse.

This article explores the persistent and deeply troubling issue of conflict-related sexual violence (CRSV) throughout history and in contemporary conflicts. It examines the roots of wartime sexual violence in wartime, the evolving international legal framework for the protection of civilians, and the emergence of concerns about the protection of women and girls from such violence. The article delves into controversial aspects, including competing theories to explain CRSV, the challenges in obtaining accurate data on its prevalence, and the often-overlooked issue of CRSV against men and boys. It also addresses the cultural and societal factors that perpetuate CRSV and the long-lasting consequences on survivors. The article concludes by underscoring the importance of comprehensive care for survivors and the need to tackle the deep-seated causes of this violence, including gender inequality.

Umwana w'umugore: The gendered realities of girls born of conflict-related sexual violence and their mothers in post-genocide Rwanda.

This article explores the challenges, needs and capacities of girls born of conflict-related sexual violence during the 1994 Rwandan genocide against the Tutsi. Twenty-nine interviews and 11 focus groups were conducted with girls born of genocidal rape, alongside 44 interviews with mothers of children born of genocidal rape. In a society where Umwana w'umugore - being 'the child of a woman' - is considered an insult for children born of rape, gendered realities profoundly shape girls' experiences. Data reveal that girls born of genocidal rape face challenges related to identity and belonging, multiple forms of violence and economic challenges. Moreover, girls sustain the indirect consequences of gender-based injustices committed against their mothers, making stigma and social exclusion shared and intergenerational experiences, alongside mutual care and support. Policy development must take into account the unique needs of girls born of rape, the precarious situation of their mothers and broader gender inequalities.

Translating survivor-centredness into pedagogical approaches to training on sexual violence in conflict and emergency settings: A case study

Abstract To encourage further interrogation of the language of “survivor-centredness” in the field of conflict-related sexual violence, this article offers a case study of efforts to build and intensify more survivor-centred pedagogy for use in the training of humanitarian workers seeking to address sexual violence in conflict and emergency settings. Set against the backdrop of a literature review of existing usages, it builds on key aspects of an earlier evaluation in which all three authors were involved in different capacities.

Strengthening International Law against Sexual Violence in Armed Conflicts: Insights from the Russian-Ukrainian War

Sexual violence associated with armed conflict remains a little-explored phenomenon despite its relevance due to the inadequate effectiveness of preventive measures enshrined in international humanitarian law documents. Given the ongoing Russian-Ukrainian war, it is imperative to allocate particular focus towards identifying potential opportunities for law enforcement in Ukraine. The purpose of this article is to examine international legal instruments for preventing conflict-related sexual violence by analysing principal international treaties, conventions, and declarations of judgments from international tribunals. This study employs various methods, including formal-legal analysis, content analysis, historical-legal methodology, case studies, and statistical observation. The article provides an overview of legislative mechanisms used towards preventing sexual violence related to armed conflicts while assessing current state problems within Ukraine that indicate the ineffectiveness of such mechanisms since only 208 officially registered incidents were recorded as of June 2023. The major conclusion derived from the study is a pressing necessity for a legislative framework that works in synergy with national and international institutions, ensuring states fulfil their obligations concerning human rights, and further research should address the said issue in more detail.

THE ANALYSIS OF HUMAN RIGHTS ‘INFLATION’ IN THE CONTEXT OF EVOLVING INTERNATIONAL REGIME OF WOMEN’S RIGHTS

Without a doubt, the concern about ‘human rights inflation’ reflects the modern world’s increasing ambition, breadth and complexity in developing the human rights regime. This rapidly expanding catalogue of rights has generated discussion about human rights proliferation, devaluation and too vast interpretation. Consequently, some critics perceive new generations of human rights as less relevant, which ultimately is supposed to alter their purpose, legitimacy, and effectiveness. This article seeks to disentangle the inflation objection from other concerns about rights expansionism and to critically assess it. Therefore, it will both analyze the phenomenon of rights inflation as well as evaluate its scope of implication based on the progressive development of women’s rights in the domain of gender-based violence and conflict-related sexual violence. The article will also analyze examples of possible regresses of women’s rights in the topic of reproductive rights based on constitutional court decisions in the United States and Poland. To underline only a few examples, the most striking ones will be presented and they will relate to (i) the evolution of women’s rights invigorated by the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and the interpretation of its provisions by the CEDAW Committee, (ii) the recognition of the crime of sexual violence in armed conflicts as well as a more accurate definition of the crime of rape and lastly (iii) the exponential progress of second generation rights, which include social, economic and political emancipation of women. The article will reach its conclusion by explaining the importance of generating a sense of closure in human rights interpretation through drawing strict boundaries around the corpus of ‘proper’ human rights without entitling to a suspicion of claims of too far-reaching cultural and political transformations within societal structure. Instead of calling it human rights devaluation, the author argues that it should be perceived as human rights evolution, which encompasses both a constant adjustment and reinterpretation of rights according to the rapidly changing world as well as the way people understand it.

Ubuntu-informed approaches for addressing Conflict-Related Sexual Violence (CRSV): Scope, rationale, and implications for Social Work

Ubuntu-informed approaches for addressing Conflict-Related Sexual Violence (CRSV): Scope, rationale, and implications for Social Work

Militarization of Everyday Life: Girls in Armed Conflicts

The purpose of the paper is to highlight the issue of the changed nature of warfare in the last few decades of the 20th and 21st centuries, with a special emphasis on ethical aspects and the problem of using an increasing number of child soldiers. The main thesis of the paper is that the practice of using and recruiting children in armed conflicts around the world is the least recognized and most neglected form of child abuse in modern society, and that it is less a matter of culture and the lack of society’s attitude towards the values of the child, and more a matter of pragmatism and generally socioeconomic phenomenon. Several key events on the world scene played a crucial role in recognizing the problem of the existence and recruitment of children in armed conflicts around the world. But what is significant is that even in these cases it is nowhere clear and visible where the girls are in armed conflicts, what is happening to them and what are their rights? By revealing the militarization of girls’ everyday lives in armed conflicts and their role, girls must first and foremost become visible. The expected contribution of the paper will therefore move in the direction of highlighting and recognizing the ethical aspects of conflict-related sexual violence, of grave violations against children and ethical aspects of most severe forms of child abuse and the consequences of abuse, such as poor health outcomes and the destruction of their lives, and highlight the possible solutions to the mentioned problem within theoretical but also practical framework.

The state of scientific development of the problems of criminal liability for gender-based violence in the context of armed conflict (martial law) in Ukraine in 2015-2018

This article continues the publication of scientific articles on the state of scientific development of the issues of criminal liability for gender-based violence in the context of armed conflict (martial law) in Ukraine. The author has devoted this scientific article to the analysis of the approved dissertation research topics on gender-based violence, including its types (forms), in 2015-2018.
 It is noted that the year 2014 in the history of Ukraine is associated with the beginning of the "hybrid” war of the Russian Federation: the occupation of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea (February-March) and the creation of "pseudo­republics” in the east - the so-called "dpr” and "lpr” (April). These events were the impetus for the legal assessment of such acts against the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Ukraine by international organizations and foreign leaders.
 It is emphasized that during this period, civil society organizations conducted research on the use of violence, including gender-based violence, by members of illegal armed groups against both civilians and prisoners of war from the Armed Forces of Ukraine and volunteer associations. The author emphasizes that such studies were carried out within the framework of grants and were interim in nature (covering either the beginning of the armed conflict or several months).
 It is concluded that among the approved dissertation research topics on gender-based violence, including its types (forms), in 2015-2018, 52.3% or 34% do not have information on scientific publications and dissertation research or do not have texts of dissertation research freely available.
 It has been established that the increase in 2018 in the number of dissertation research topics on gender-based violence and its forms (types) is due to the adoption in December 2017 of the Laws of Ukraine "On Prevention of Gender-Based Violence” and "On the Prevention of Gender-Based Violence”. The Laws of Ukraine "On Preventing and Combating Domestic Violence” and "On Amendments to the Criminal and Criminal Procedure Codes of Ukraine to Implement the Provisions of the Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence”. In particular, among the 24 topics of dissertation research: 8 are devoted to the problem of administrative and criminal liability for domestic violence, 4 to criminal offenses against sexual freedom and sexual inviolability of a person and its types.
 It is also noted that out of 65 topics, only 5 topics are directly devoted to the problem of gender­based violence in armed conflict and armed conflict in general, among which only one work is directly devoted to the problem of conflict-related sexual and gender-based violence as an international crime.
 At the same time, in this paper, the author examined the issue of gender-based violence related to the conflict from the perspective of international law, rather than criminal liability under national law.

Long-term physical and psychological symptoms in Syrian men subjected to detention, conflict-related sexual violence and torture: cohort study of self-reported symptom evolution

Since March 2011, more than 1 million people, mostly men, have been arrested, detained, and tortured by the Assad regime. Published literature does not reflect the evolution of symptoms after male sexual and physical violence in detention. This cohort study examines the constellation and evolution of self-reported symptoms after male conflict-related sexual violence (CRSV) in Syrian state detention. Sexual, psychological, and physical symptoms and conditions experienced by a cohort of 106 male detainees after CRSV in Syrian regime detention were evaluated over a ten-year period (2012-2022). Men sought forensic medical expert evaluations (FMEs) to document torture and later consented to semi-structured interviews (SSIs), a median of 8.8 years after their detention. A standard data collection tool was used to assess symptoms and conditions during FMEs (Time 3), and at the time of the SSI (Time 4), during which men also reported symptoms experienced during detention (Time 1) and after detention release (Time 2). 30.2% of men spent more than 1 year in detention and 9.4% were detained >5 years. 90% reported being slapped, punched, kicked, hit with objects, 60.4% of men reported torture with multiple devices, and 48.1% reported being burned or electrocuted. Multiple sexual violence types were reported during detention: 97.2% forced nudity, 45.3% violence to genitals or anus, 30.2% collective sexual humiliation, and 9.4% rape. Men recalled nearly universal presence of acute pain, bleeding wounds, skin infections, sleep disturbances, fear, sadness, anxiety, and despair during detention. By Time 4, acute physical and psychological conditions were fading or absent, while scars, avoidance, intrusive memories, lack of trust, self-isolation, chronic pain, anger, and low self-esteem were reported by≥50%. The most persistently reported symptoms following detention through the SSI included scars, pain, intrusive memories, and avoidance in ≥50% of men. At the SSI, 26.4% of men reported erectile dysfunction and 23.6% challenges with sexual relations. Men reported persistent symptoms and conditions years after CRSV, torture and detention. The unique constellation of findings and their evolution in male CRSV survivors, particularly increasing rates of anger, distrust, and self-isolation, must urgently inform design and delivery of support services and health care. This study was funded by the United Kingdom Foreign Commonwealth and Development Office and the Arts and Humanities Research Council through the project 'Understanding and Addressing the Impact of Invisibility on Conflict-Related Male Sexual Violence in Syria'.

The Colombian Truth Commission’s work on reproductive violence: gendered victimhood and reproductive autonomy

While conflict-related sexual violence has gained attention on international transitional justice agendas, conflict-related reproductive violence continues to be overlooked. The Colombian Truth Commission was the first truth-seeking transitional justice body worldwide to directly investigate these forms of conflict-related violence. Based on an ethnographic analysis of the Commission’s work on reproductive violence, in this article I engage with the reproductive justice framework to argue that the Commission’s work broadened understandings of both gendered victimhood and reproductive autonomy. Regarding gendered victimhood, I show that the Commission’s work focused on gaining recognition for conflict-related reproductive violence as distinct from conflict-related sexual violence, identifying conflict-related practices of reproductive violence and offering recommendations for addressing such practices. Secondly, I show that not only was the Commission the first truth-seeking body to directly investigate reproductive violence, but it did so through an understanding of reproductive violence that does not revolve around the notion of autonomy as individual choice. I argue that by doing this, the Commission compelled us to comprehensively consider war as part of the conditions under which reproductive autonomy may be exercised. Following this line, the latter part of the article focuses on the Colombian government’s use of glyphosate as a form of conflict-related reproductive violence that claimed ownership over the reproductive futures of entire communities by creating environmental devastation.

Forms of sexual violence perpetrated in conflict and post-conflict settings against South Sudanese men resettled in two communities in Uganda: an exploratory qualitative study

BackgroundConsideration for men as survivors of sexual violence in conflict and post-conflict settings has gained some prominence in the last decade. There remains a paucity of empirical data on forms of sexual violence from the survivors’ perspective, and no study has considered the context of the 2013 South Sudan conflict specifically.MethodsThis paper reports the findings of an exploratory qualitative study on the forms of sexual violence perpetrated against men in conflict and post-conflict settings, with the survivors as the main participants. A purposive sampling technique was used to recruit 26 South Sudanese male sexual violence survivors who have resettled in two refugee resettlement communities in Uganda since the onset of the 2013 South Sudan conflict. In-depth semi-structured interviews were used to collect the data from the male survivors. Six humanitarian aid workers who support sexual violence survivors also participated as key informants. Thematic data analysis was performed on the qualitative data.ResultsThe 26 survivors reported experiencing eight direct and two indirect forms of sexual violence in conflict and post-conflict settings. The direct forms include (1) striping men naked; (2) male rape; (3) exchange of sex for favours; (4) forcing men to rape other people; (5) genital mutilation; (6) genital beating; (7) insertion of objects into men’s anus, and (8) taking men as wives. The indirect forms were forcing men to witness the rape of a female relative and forcing men to cheer or assist during the rape of other people.ConclusionTo maximize positive health outcomes for survivors, stakeholders must consider both direct and indirect forms of male-directed conflict-related sexual violence in policy and practice.

Victims as ‘Means to an End’: An Investigation into the Construction of CRSV Victimhood in the ICTY

Law has the power to pronounce truth. In the context of conflict-related sexual violence (CRSV), this paper illustrates law’s ability to define,legitimise and privilege some narratives of victimhood, while also misinterpreting, silencing, and suppressing others. Looking at courtroom transcripts from the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), this pilot study investigates the witness testimonies of four Bosniak women who, during the Yugoslav Wars, were detained in camps and systematically raped by Serbian soldiers. A contextualised, micro-level, qualitative approach is taken to analyse their testimonies, looking specifically at the courtroom process, conduct between actorsand narration of events. Through victim-witnesses’ words the wider structures and individual realities of CRSV are brought to light, with their experiences revealing ethnic tensions at play, ideas of nation-widejustice, and a strong, determined character in victims. Yet this paper argues that such narratives of victims were not acknowledged or understood by either the defence or the prosecution, suggesting that the tribunal failed to gauge the reality of CRSV. Given law’s power, and therefore the ICTY’s power, to pronounce truth, this study is crucial for international legal bodies going forward to improve the comprehension, prosecution, and, ultimately, the interruption of CRSV.

When the Head of State Makes Rape Jokes, His Troops Rape on the Ground: Conflict-Related Sexual Violence in Russia’s Aggression against Ukraine

When the Head of State Makes Rape Jokes, His Troops Rape on the Ground: Conflict-Related Sexual Violence in Russia’s Aggression against Ukraine

Ultraleftism to Missary of Commoners: Case of Victims of Sexual Violence During Insurgency

A decade-long armed conflict resulted in the prevalence of survivors of sexual violence in Nepal. The survivors include those who sustained physical and/or mental harm and social distress due to sexual violence or having such family members. The insurgency launched by the then CPN (Maoist) in 1996 was an act of ultra-leftism. The victims of conflict-related sexual violence (CRSV) are being deprived of justice even after a decade and a half without realization of the agreed transitional justice process as per the Comprehension Peace Accord (CPA). Despite the examples of good practices that exist globally, the CRSV survivors in Nepal have not been acknowledged adequately as a crucial facet of the conflict resolution processes neither in any peace dialogue nor in the CPA and peace-building initiatives pursued afterward. Findings concluded that the conflict resolution processes so far do not mean anything to them as they have neither been part of nor benefited from the claimed ‘peace-building initiatives’in Nepal. This article has revealed that the situation is worrying sum as leaving the survivors behind does not simply lead to failure of the conflict resolution process in Nepal. In explaining PMPD Bhandari states that the communist party can resolve any problem with the help of people amidst the political and organizational works without imposing the security forces. Therefore, while illustrating the severity of incidents and concerns of CRSV survivors, the article has drawn the attention of all stakeholders to ensure the effective participation of the CRSV survivors’ and integrate their issues and concerns into peace-building processes.

The problem of types of violence in the criminal law of Ukraine.

The problems of violence and its types in domestic legal science do not lose their relevance, especially today, when the full-scale invasion of Russia on the territory of Ukraine has been going on for more than a year, accompanied by numerous acts of violence of various types. In addition, Russia uses sexual violence as a weapon of war. During the war, the level of particularly violent crime increases significantly. Today’s violence is very different from what prevailed in the last century. One of the reasons for the transformation of violence is globalization as one of the main determinants of the emergence of new types of criminal violence. At the same time, a clear differentiation of types of violence has not yet been developed in criminal law science. In the latest edition of the project of the Criminal Code of Ukraine (January 30, 2023), which was developed by the working group on the development of criminal law of Ukraine, it is proposed to fix the definition of the concept of «violence» in the following wording: «violence is physical influence on another person, in particular by striking, beating, using acoustic, light, thermal or chemical factor or restriction of her personal freedom». The working group, defining the concepts of «violence» and «threat», includes in the content of these concepts what is currently covered by two main types of violence, namely physical and mental. This approach has been criticized, since it is impossible to mix such a type of violence as mental with the latter type – a threat. It is well known that violence is a complex phenomenon of social reality, which has a dualistic nature and various external manifestations in the form of acts of external human behavior. Violence has two main types, namely physical and mental violence. All other types of violence distinguished in the theory of criminal law of Ukraine and criminology are covered by one of them. It is also possible to propose the following classification criteria for distinguishing types of violence, which are not exhaustive. Depending on the addressee: direct violence, in which violent actions harm only the victim, and indirect violence, when harm is caused to people close to the victim in order to influence the latter’s behavior. Depending on the method of distribution, it is advisable to distinguish between offline violence, which is used «faceto-face», and online violence, which can take place using the capabilities of the Internet. Until February 24, 2022, scholars considered conflict-related sexual and gender-based violence an international crime or a war crime. Obviously, with the beginning of a full-scale invasion, the problem of this type of violence requires a separate scientific study within the framework of criminal and international law. Key words: violence, criminal liability, intent, physical violence, mental violence, psychological influence, coercion, war crime, international crime, gender-based violence, sexual violence, financial violence, illegal behavior, violent crime, victim.

Post-research reflexivity in qualitative research: Through cloaks and cross-threading

This interdisciplinary Note is a creative form of writing that engages in post-research reflexivity through a process that it terms ‘cross-threading’. Using the trope of a cloak, which it links back to the author’s childhood imaginings of having an invisibility cloak, it cross-threads through the medium of this cloak a series of thoughts and feelings about a recently concluded research project (led by the author) exploring some of the ways that victims-/survivors of conflict-related sexual violence demonstrate resilience. Drawing on empirical data from Bosnia-Herzegovina, it illustrates the utility of the cloak as a thinking practice in relation to some of the stories that interviewees told, and it highlights the relevance of the cloak as a way of thinking about resilience. It also discusses the cloak as an identity, and in so doing it draws attention to an important aspect of the research process that is rarely talked about – the feelings, emotions and anxieties that researchers might experience when a major study or project ends. This Note concludes by underlining the potential benefits to researchers of having an acoustic cloak.